Language families and languages
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
Language families can be subdivided into smaller units, conventionally referred to as "branches" (because the history of a language family is often represented as a "tree" diagram).
The common ancestor of a family (or branch) is known as its "protolanguage". For example, the reconstructible protolanguage of the well-known Indo-European family is called Proto-Indo-European (not known from written records, since it was spoken before the invention of writing). Sometimes a protolanguage can be identified with a historically known language. Thus, provincial dialects of Latin ("Vulgar Latin") gave rise to the modern Romance languages, so the Proto-Romance language is more or less identical with Latin (if not exactly with the literary Latin of the Classical writers), and dialects of Old Norse are the protolanguage to Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Icelandic.
Languages that cannot be reliably classified into any family are known as language isolates.
Largest families
According to the Ethnologue[1], the largest language families are:
- Niger-Congo (1514 languages) [formerly Niger-Kordofanian]
- Austronesian (1268 languages)
- Trans-New Guinea (564 languages) [disputed]
- Indo-European (449 languages)
- Sino-Tibetan (403 languages)
- Afro-Asiatic (375 languages)
- Australian (263 languages) [no longer accepted as a family]
- Nilo-Saharan (204 languages)
- Oto-Manguean (174 languages)
- Austro-Asiatic (169 languages)
- Sepik-Ramu (100 languages) [disputed]
- Tai-Kadai (76 languages)
- Tupi (76 languages)
- Dravidian (73 languages)
- Mayan (69 languages)
Language families (spoken)
In the following, each "bulleted" item is a known language family. The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections more comprehensible than an unstructured list of the dozen or two of independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are not a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.
Africa and southwest Asia
- See main article, African languages
Europe, and north, west, and south Asia
- Indo-European languages
- Dravidian languages (some include Dravidian languages in a larger Elamo-Dravidian language family.)
- Caucasian languages (generally thought to be two separate families, North Caucasian and Kartvelian)
- Altaic languages (disputed)
- Uralic languages
- Hurro-Urartian languages (extinct)
- Yukaghir languages (Some include Yukaghir in the Uralic family.)
- Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
- Yeniseian languages
- Andamanese languages (two families)
East and Southeast Asia and the Pacific
- Australian Aboriginal languages (multiple families)
- Austroasiatic languages
- Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) languages
- Hmong-Mien languages
- Japonic languages
- Papuan languages (multiple families)
- Sino-Tibetan languages (some include Tai-Kadai and Hmong-Mien in the Sino-Tibetan family)
- Tai-Kadai languages
North America
- See main article, Native American languages
Central America and South America
- See main article, Native American languages
Language isolates (spoken)
Central & South America
- Aikaná ''(Brazil: Rondônia)
- Alagüilac (Guatemala)
- Andoque language (Colombia, Peru)
- Baenan (Brazil)
- Betoi (Columbia)
- Camsá language (Columbia)
- Canichana (Bolivia)
- Cayubaba language (Bolivia)
- Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
- Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
- Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
- Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero)
- Culle (Peru)
- Cunza (Chile, Bolivia, Argentina)
- Gamela (Brazil: Maranhão)
- Gorgotoqui (Bolivia)
- Huamoé (Brazil: Pernambuco)
- Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca)
- Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
- Itonama language (Bolivia)
- Jotí (Venezuela)
- Karirí ''(Brazil: Paraíba, Pernambuco, Ceará)
- Koayá ''(Brazil: Rondônia)
- Kukurá (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
- Mapudungu (Chile, Argentina)
- Maratino (northeastern Mexico)
- Movima (Bolivia)
- Munichi (Peru)
- Nambiquaran (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
- Naolan (Mexico: Tamaulipas)
- Natú (Brazil: Pernambuco)
- Omurano (Peru)
- Otí (Brazil: São Paulo)
- Pankararú language (Brazil: Pernambuco)
- Puelche language (Chile)
- Puinave language (Columbia)
- Puquina (Bolivia)
- Quinigua (northeast Mexico)
- Sabela (Ecuador, Peru)
- Seri (Mexico: Sonora)
- Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
- Tarairiú (Brazil: Rio Grande do Norte)
- Tarascan (a.k.a. Purépecha) (Mexico: Michoacán)
- Taushiro (Peru)
- Tequiraca (Peru)
- Ticuna language (Colombia, Peru, Brazil)
- Tuxá language (Brazil: Bahia, Pernambuco)
- Warao language (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)
- Xokó (Brazil: Alagoas, Pernambuco)
- Xukurú (Brazil: Pernambuco, Paraíba)
- Yámana language (a.k.a Yagan) (Chile)
- Yuracare language (Bolivia)
- Yuri (Colombia, Brazil)
- Yurumanguí (Columbia)
North America
- Adai (US: Louisiana, Texas)
- Aranama-Tamique (US: Texas)
- Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas)
- Beothuk (Canada: Newfoundland)
- Calusa (US: Florida)
- Cayuse (US: Oregon, Washington)
- Chimariko (US: California)
- Chitimacha (US: Lousiania)
- Coahuilteco (US: Texas; northeast Mexico)
- Cotoname (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
- Esselen (US: California)
- Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)
- Karankawa (US: Texas)
- Karok (a.k.a. Karuk) (US: California)
- Keres (US: New Mexico)
- Konomihu (US: California)
- Kootenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)
- Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana)
- Salinan (US: California)
- Siuslaw (US: Oregon)
- Solano (northeast Mexico; US: Texas)
- Takelma (US: Oregon)
- Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia)
- Tonkawa (US: Texas)
- Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas)
- Washo (US: California, Nevada)
- Yana (US: California)
- Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma)
- Zuni (a.k.a. Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)
Asia
- Ainu language or languages (Russia, Japan) (like Arabic or Japanese, the diversity within Ainu is large enough that some consider it to be perhaps up to a dozen languages while others consider it a single language with high dialectal diversity)
- Burushaski (Pakistan, India) (sometimes linked to Yeniseian)
- Kalto or Nahali (India) [sometimes linked to Munda]
- Korean (North & South Korea, China) (sometimes linked to Altaic)
- Nivkh or Gilyak (Russia) (sometimes linked to Chukchi-Kamchatkan)
- Sumerian (Iraq) [extinct]
- Elamite (Iran) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Dravidian)
- Hattic (Turkey) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Northwest Caucasian)
Africa
- Hadza (Tanzania) (sometimes included in Khoisan)
Europe
Sign languages
- Adamorobe Sign Language (ADS)
- American Sign Language (ASL)
- Australian Sign Language (Auslan)
- Austrian Sign Language "Österreichische Gebärdensprache" (ÖGS)
- BANZSL - 'Parent' language of which BSL, Auslan, and NZSL can be considered dialects
- Brazilian Sign Language "Língua Brasileira de Sinais" (LIBRAS)
- British Sign Language (BSL)
- Chinese Sign Language "中国手语" (CSL)
- Dutch Sign Language "Nederlandse Gebarentaal" (NGT)
- Finnish Sign Language "Suomalainen viittomakieli" (SVK)
- Flemish Sign Language "Vlaamse Gebarentaal" (VGT)
- French Sign Language "Langues des Signes Français" (LSF)
- German Sign Language "Deutsche Gebärdensprache" (DGS)
- Hawaii Pidgin Sign Language
- Indian Sign Language
- Italian Sign Language "Lingua dei Segni Italiana"
- Irish Sign Language (ISL)
- Japanese Sign Language "日本手話" (Nihon shuwa), (JSL)
- Malaysian Sign Language "Bahasa Isyarat Malaysia" (BIM)
- Maltese Sign Language "Lingwi tas-Sinjali Maltin" (LSM)
- Martha's Vineyard Sign Language
- Mexican Sign Language "Lengua de Señas Mexicana"
- New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL)
- Nicaraguan Sign Language "Idioma de Signos Nicaragüense" (ISN)
- Penang Sign Language (used in Malaysia)
- Polish Sign Language "Polski Język Migowy" (PJM)
- Portuguese Sign Language "Lingua Gestual Portuguesa" (LGP)
- Quebec Sign Language "Langue des Signes Québécois" (LSQ)
- Selangor Sign Language (used in Malaysia)
- South African Sign Language (SASL)
- Spanish Sign Language "Lenguaje de Signos Español" (LSE)
- Swedish Sign Language "Tecknad svenska" (TS)
- Swiss-French Sign Language "Langage Gestuelle"
- Swiss-German Sign Language "Deutschschweizer Gebärdensprache" (DSGS)
- Taiwanese Sign Language (TSL)
- Yucatec Maya Sign Language
Creole languages, pidgins, mixed languages, and trade languages
- American Indian Pidgin English
- Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (a.k.a. Micmac-Basque Pidgin, Souriquois)
- Bislamic languages
- Broken Oghibbeway (a.k.a. Broken Ojibwa)
- Broken Slavey (a.k.a. Slavey Jargon, Broken Slavé)
- Callahuaya (a.k.a. Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya)
- Carib Pidgin (a.k.a. Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin, Ndjuka-Trio)
- Carib Pidgin-Arawak Mixed Language
- Catalangu
- Chabacano - A Spanish creole spoken in South of the Philippines.
- Chinook Jargon
- Delaware Jargon (a.k.a. Pidgin Delaware)
- Eskimo Trade Jargon (a.k.a. Herschel Island Eskimo Pidgin, Ship's Jargon)
- Greenlandic Eskimo Pidgin
- Guajiro-Spanish
- Güegüence-Nicarao
- Haida Jargon
- Haitian creole
- Hawaiian Creole English
- Hiri Motu
- Hudson Strait Pidgin
- International Sign or Gestuno - constructed language
- Inuktitut-English Pidgin
- Jargonized Powhatan
- Kutenai Jargon
- Labrador Eskimo Pidgin (a.k.a. Labrador Inuit Pidgin)
- Lingua Franca Apalachee
- Lingua Franca Creek
- Lingua franca
- Lingua Geral do Sul (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Paulista, Tupí Austral)
- Loucheux Jargon (a.k.a. Jargon Loucheux)
- Media Lengua
- Mednyj Aleut (a.k.a. Copper Island Aleut, Medniy Aleut, CIA)
- Michif (a.k.a. French Cree, Métis, Metchif, Mitchif, Métchif)
- Mobilian Jargon (a.k.a. Mobilian Trade Jargon, Chickasaw-Chocaw Trade Language, Yamá
- Montagnais Pidgin Basque (a.k.a. Pidgin Basque-Montagnais)
- Nheengatú (a.k.a. Lingua Geral Amazônica, Lingua Boa, Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte)
- Norfuk
- Nootka Jargon
- Ocaneechi
- Pitkern
- Pidgin Massachusett
- Portuguese Creole languages
- Rusnorsk
- Sango
Proposed language stocks
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Other natural languages of special interest
External links
- http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp
- http://gebaren.ugent.be
- http://www.elanguages.info - articles, products, & info about language learning online
- Number of speakers by language
Bibilography
- Boas, Franz. (1911). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 1). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1922). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 2). Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 40. Washington: Government Print Office (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology).
- Boas, Franz. (1933). Handbook of American Indian languages (Vol. 3). Native American legal materials collection, title 1227. Glückstadt: J.J. Augustin.
- Campbell, Lyle. (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
- Campbell, Lyle; & Mithun, Marianne (Eds.). (1979). The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- Goddard, Ives (Ed.). (1996). Languages. Handbook of North American Indians (W. C. Sturtevant, General Ed.) (Vol. 17). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 0-1604-8774-9.
- Goddard, Ives. (1999). Native languages and language families of North America (rev. and enlarged ed. with additions and corrections). [Map]. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press (Smithsonian Institute). (Updated version of the map in Goddard 1996). ISBN 0-8032-9271-6.
- Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (Ed.). (2005). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (15th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-159-X. (Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com).
- Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966). The Languages of Africa (2nd ed.). Bloomington: Indiana University.
- Mithun, Marianne. (1999). The languages of Native North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-23228-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-521-29875-X.
- Ruhlen, Merritt. (1987). A guide to the world's languages. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Sturtevant, William C. (Ed.). (1978-present). Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 1-20). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution. (Vols. 1-3, 16, 18-20 not yet published).
- Voegelin, C. F.; & Voegelin, F. M. (1977). Classification and index of the world's languages. New York: Elsevier.
